What is theory?
A guess
Ideas
A theory is a set of interrelated laws or general principles (hypotheses)
that have been repeatedly verified about some aspect of reality.
Theory is :
statements about the relationships among abstract concepts or variables
(Hocking, Stacks, McDermott, 2003, p. 29).
What does theory
do?
Explain
Predict
Discover
Theories tell us:
Why
independent variables cause dependent variables to take on particular values.
Why study
theories?
Foundation for research
Walter Lippman
Pictures in our heads..
1922 Perception is reality.
Testing theory-- Powerful Effects
Scientific methodologies
Concern
over the influence of the media
Lowery and Defleur Media effects Theory--
Theory of
Uniform Influence
Lowery and Defleur Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
based on
Individual Differences
based on
Social Categories
based on
Social Relationships
Theory of indirect influence
Powerful
but limited
Modeling
Meaning
Theory of Uniform Influence
Powerful
Effects Theory
Magic Bullet
Theory
Direct
Influence
Hypodermic
Needle
Theory of Uniform influence
The
media present messages to the members of the mass society who perceive them more
or less uniform.
Such
messages are stimuli that influence the individuals emotions and sentiments.
Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
Based on Individual difference
Media present info, but messages are interpreted selectively.
The basis of this selectivity lies in variations in habits of perception
among members of the society.
The selectivity occurs because of a persons unique personal organization
of beliefs, attitudes, values, needs, and modes of personal gratification that
has been acquired through learning.
Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
Based individual difference
Because perception is selective, interpretation, retention, and response
to media messages are also selective and variable.
The media effect is limited by individual psychological differences.
Individual Differences
Hovland,
et al
Why
We Fight
Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
based on
social categories
Media messages are received and interpreted selectively.
Selectivity is influenced by the location of the individual in the
differentiated social structure.
Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
based on social categories
The social structure is composed of numerous categories of people,
defined by such factors as sex, age, income, education and occupation.
Patterns of media attention and response are shaped by the factors that
define these categories, making response to mass communication somewhat similar
in each.
The effects of the media are neither uniform, powerful, nor direct, but
are selective and limited by social category influences.
Social Categories
Lazersfeld ,
Berelson and Gaudet (Erie County, Ohio
Hovland, et
al.
Theory of Selective or Limited Influence
based on
Social Relationships
Media
present info, but messages are interpreted selectively
The effects of media are limited and shaped by the persons social
interactions with others.
Theory of Selective or limited influence
Based on social relationships
brought to bear when an individuals decisions regarding behavior toward
mass communication are modified by family, friends, acquaintances, or others.
Patterns of media attention and response uniquely reflects the networks
of meaningful social ties of each individual in society.
Theory of Selective or limited influence
Based on social relationships
Thus, the effects of the media are neither uniform, powerful, nor
direct: they are greatly limited and shaped by the persons social interactions
with others
Social relationships
Katz
and Lazersfeld.
Decatur study
Food,
fashion, movies and public affairs
Opinion Leaders
Theory of indirect influences
Modeling
The individual perceives a
form of behavior described or portrayed by a character in media content.
The individual judges this behavior to be attractive and potentially
useful for coping with some personal situation that has arisen or might arise.
Theory of indirect influences
Modeling
Bandura
Social
Learning Theory
Bobo
Theory of indirect influence
Meaning
The individual perceives a form of behavior described or portrayed by a
character in media content.
That situation is labeled by a standardized symbol or symbols from the
shared language.
Theory of indirect influence
Meaning
Gerbner
Cultivation Theory
Agenda Setting
is the
process by which the media emphasizes an event and thus influences an audience
to regard this event as important.
(McCombs
and Shaw , 1972)
"It may not be successful much of the time in telling the people what to
think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think
about."
What is an agenda?
Rogers and Dearing (1988) define agenda as "a list of issues and events that
are viewed at a point in time as ranked in a hierarchy of importance" (p. 565).
Categories of agenda setting
Public Agenda Setting
Policy agenda setting
Media agenda setting
Media Priming
Media Priming
Spreading activation.
Media Priming
The result
primes
effect on a target behavior or thought is a dual function of the intensity and
the recency of the prime
Length of the priming impact
Media Priming (Berkowitz)
Priming effect.
Berkowitz suggests that aggressive ideas are activated by viewing violence.
Meaning Theories
Cultivation theory
How it
started?
Violence in
the media
George
Gerbner
Surgeon
Generals Reports
Cultural Indicators Project
TV was
turning into a mechanism to connect many people.
TV can
explain a world to us.
News
Drama
Sitcoms
General
assumptions
TV
Uses
common symbols
Common
Messages
Cultivation theory
Believe
TV is a common story teller
The more
people watch the less selective they can be.
Social
construction of reality
Cultivation theory
Heavy
viewing is a key component of the theory
How much
do the images of television dominate
Cultivation theory
Heavy
Viewing
Uses and Gratifications
U and G is a theoretical perspective that views
the media as one source of potential influence among many other sources. It is
an individual consumer approach to the study of mass communication.
Assumptions:
1)
Audience members are active participants in the mass communication process.
Assumptions
2) Mass
media use is interpreted as a response to the perceived needs of audience
members.
3) Individuals use the media rather than media using them.
Assumptions
4)
Audience use of the media must first be explored and understood before
considering these use patterns in relation to questions of cultural meaning and
significance.
Uses and Gratifications
Objectives of Uses and Gratifications
1) Explain how mass media are used to gratify needs
Assumptions:
1)
Audience members are active participants in the mass communication process.
Assumptions
2) Mass
media use is interpreted as a response to the perceived needs of audience
members.
3) Individuals use the media rather than media using them.
Assumptions
4)
Audience use of the media must first be explored and understood before
considering these use patterns in relation to questions of cultural meaning and
significance.
Uses and Gratifications
Objectives of Uses and Gratifications
1) Explain how mass media are used to gratify needs
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