EXAM 1 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Fall 2008

Cellular Biology/Altered Cell Biology Review :
What is the structure of the eukaryotic cell membrane? What are the proteins found here used for?
What are inclusions?
Be able to give the function for all the organelles mentioned in class. Review cellular respiration (oxidative phosphorylation). How can we produce ATP without oxygen?
What are the four major types of tissues? IN GENERAL, where would each be found, and what are its major characteristics?
What is pathophysiology? What is disease? Etiology? What are the categories of etiology?
What is the difference between an acute and a chronic condition? What is the difference between a sign and a symptom?
Be able to define atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia, metaplasia, neoplasia. Which changes are considered to be reversible?
What can cause cell injury?
What is the difference between ischemia and hypoxia? What happens to cells during hypoxia?
What are free radicals? How do they cause problems within a cell?
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis? When would each occur?
What events might cause a cell to be unable to maintain homeostasis? How can cellular injury affect the entire body?
What are the two major theories on the cause of aging?
What does telomerase do?

Neoplasia:
What factors normally regulate cell division? What do we mean when we say a tumor cell's growth is autonomous?
What do we call the study of tumors?
What are the characteristics of a benign tumor? If it is benign, does that mean it can't really hurt you?
Where do we get the name "cancer"? What are the two "A" words that describe cancer ? What characteristics does a malignant tumor have?
How do we name benign and malignant tumors? If I give you the name of a neoplasm from table 5.1, can you tell me if it is benign or malignant?
What are the four stages of cancer spread?
What do we look for in blood tests for cancer?
What is the "multi-hit" hypothesis of cancer? What causes cancer on the cellular level? What are some of the ways a cell can lose control over cell division? What is apoptosis, and how does it apply here? What are telomeres, and what do they do? Of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which ones do you want turned on and turned off to prevent cancer?
What is gene silencing? Is it normal?
What individuals should we target for cancer screening?
How are viruses linked to cancer? What are some of the viruses linked to cancer? Can bacteria also cause cancer?
Exposure to what environmental agents increase the risk of cancer? How do we determine a link between an environmental factor and cancer?
How do tumors spread locally? What means do they use for metastasis?
Why is angiogenesis important?
How do we stage cancer? (4 stages, and TNM)
What clinical manifestations would you expect to see? What factors might influence these?
How is cancer treated? Which way is "best" ?
What are the side effects of cancer treatment, and why do they occur?

Infectious Disease:
Bacterial infections:
What is a host? What is infection?
What is your normal microbiota? Is it harmful?
What is an opportunistic pathogen?
What is the structure of a bacterium? How does it differ from your cells?
What are exotoxins? Endotoxins? Adhesion factors? Evasive factors? Invasive factors?
Viral infection:
How small, relatively speaking, is a virus? What makes up a virus? Why do they require cells?
What steps are required for a virus to reproduce?
How can viruses affect host cells?

Inflammation and fever:
How fast can inflammation occur? What causes it? Is it a specific or a non-specific response? What are the five cardinal signs of inflammation? What are they caused by ?
What are the stages of inflammation? What occurs during each stage?
What is the difference between a transudate and an exudate?
Why are exudates a good thing in inflammation? What cells are involved in inflammation, and when do they arrive? How do they know where to go?
What is chemotaxis? How does a phagocyte consume a bacterium or other foreign particle?
 What plasma proteins are involved and what do they do? Pay special attention to the complement system - use your A&P book to review this if necessary. What are some of the other mediators involved in inflammation, and what do they do?
What are the systemic effects of inflammation?
How does chronic inflammation differ from acute inflammation?
What can we do if inflammation is excessive? What are the side effects or down-sides of these treatments?
What happens in the tissue after inflammation ends?
What factors can impair inflammation and healing?
Why do we continually produce heat? How do we regulate body heat?
What is the difference between an exogenous pyrogen and an endogenous pyrogen?  What cells produce them?
What structure controls our body temperature? How do prostaglandins fit in to this process? Why does aspirin reduce fever?
What does the hypothalamus do to raise body temperature?
What are intermittent, remittent, sustained and recurrent fevers? How do they help diagnose the problem?
How is fever beneficial? When can it cause problems?
How is fever different in the very young and the very old?

Immunity:
What are our bodies major lines of defense?
What is natural vs. acquired immunity? What do we mean by active immunity? passive immunity? Artificial vs. natural ?Be able to give an example of natural active, natural passive, artificial active and artificial passive acquired immunity.
What are antigens? What characteristics make a substance a good antigen? What cells produce antibodies (be specific!)?
How does immunity differ from inflammation? How do they work together? Trace the life and function of a B cell, starting in the bone marrow. Do the same for a Tc cell. Are all T cells the same? What is meant by a CD8 cell? A CD4 cell?
What is an antibody? What part is specific for an antigen? What can the Fc region do? What are the five molecular classes of antibodies? What can you tell me about each? What can happen when an antibody binds to an antigen? What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune responses? How many different antigens does one B cell or T cell respond to ? Why can we respond to so many different antigens? What is an antigen-presenting cell? What does a helper T cell do?
What is a cytokine? What is the difference between the MHC I and MHC II ? What is the difference between Th1 and Th2 cells?

Hypersensitivities:
What is an allergy? What is autoimmunity? What is alloimmunity?
What type of antibody is involved in immediate type hypersensitivity? How does it function differently from other classes of antibodies? Can it ever be helpful?
What is an allergen? Is there a genetic predisposition toward allergies? What chemical causes the immediate response to the allergen? What causes the late phase or second wave response? When does the late phase response occur? How can Type 1 reactions be life-threatening? What would you expect to see with anaphylactic shock? What could be done to reverse the effects?
What are Type II reactions? Do they involve antibodies? Why are they tissue specific?
What are Type III reactions? Do they involve antibodies? Are they tissue specific? How do they occur?
What are Type IV reactions? Do they involve antibodies? What do they attack? How are these cells attacked? How long does a response take?
What is graft vs. host disease?

Immunodeficiencies :
In what parts of the immune system can deficiencies occur? Is it always acquired?
What would be the first clue you might have that a person had an immune deficiency?
How could the microorganism involved point you to the root of the problem?
What precautions should be take with a person with an immune deficiency for their protection? What is graft-vs-host disease?
What are some of the ways that a person could acquire an immunodefieciency?

HIV/AIDS:
What does HIV stand for? What does AIDS stand for ?
Why can HIV be transmitted by someone who doesn't know they are infected?
How can HIV be transmitted?
When did the HIV originate? What was probably the original source?
What age group in the U.S. is most affected? In what group(s) are we seeing the incidence of HIV decline? increase?
Describe the life cycle of the HIV itself, beginning with its attachment to a cell. What cells does it attack? Why is this important?
How do we diagnose AIDS?
How does the means of infection influence when antibodies are seen in the blood? What is a window period?
What are the signs and symptoms of acute infection with HIV? Do these occur in all people infected?
What are the signs and symptoms of  the chronic phase? How long can this last?
What do we see in the crisis phase?
What are some of the unusual diseases seen in AIDS sufferers?
How is treatment of the disease related to the life cycle of the virus?
What means have been tried? Why don't we just make a vaccine and be done with it; after all, we eradicated the small pox virus, right?

END EXAM I  This should cover just about everything if you have a good grasp on the details!