These are what I call "Daily Quizzes" because I intend to post them after each lecture. To reveal the answers, highlight the area after the question (click and drag). If you print these out, the answers will appear as well. I strongly recommend that you attempt to answer the question before revealing the answer to check your study habits and to involve (challenge) yourself in the learning process.

The human brain makes up 2 % of the weight of the body, but consumes 20 % of the oxygen in the body.
Water intoxication, strangulation and cardiac arrest would tend to cause what type of edema within the CNS? Cytotoxic edema.
What symptoms would you expect to see in stage 1 Increased Intracranial Pressure?  At this stage the body has the ability to compensate for the increase in pressure, for example by decreasing the amount of cerebrospinal fluid, so there would be few symptoms.
Stage 2?Here the ICP is rising, so we see systemic vasoconstiction to get more blood to the brain ( which only increase the ICP) and episodes of confusion, restlessness, drowsiness, and slight pupillary changes.
What is Cushing sign or Cushing triad?  Increased mean arterial blood pressure (as high as 270 mm Hg), widened pulse pressure and slowing of the heart rate. These are signs of decompensation in the late stages of IICP.
In the cases of basilar skull fracture, what bone is most easily broken? What can result? The cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. This can result in the leakage of cerebrospinal fluid from the nose (rhinorhhea) or ear (otorhhea). Remember that CSF contains glucose, whereas mucus does not.
Upon autopsy you see visible bruising on the patient's brain. What is this called? This is a contusion. Concussion results only in microscopic changes in the neural tissue. Contusions can cause permanent damage to brain tissue when the necrotic tissue is phagocytized and scar tissue is formed by the astrocytes.
Epidural hematomas are more common in: young people because the dura mater is not as firmly attached to the periosteum of the skull as it is in older persons.
Cocaine can cause what type of stroke? It can cause both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke by inducing vasospasm,  increased platelet activity, and increased blood pressure, heart rate, metabolic rate and body temperature.
What can be done to treat an ischemic stroke? Intravenous thrombolytic therapy (tPA) can be used in patients without evidence of increased intracranial pressure.  This can re-establish blood flow and save some of the ischemic but viable neurons. Post-stroke treatment is aimed at preventing complications and another stroke and regaining function.
Why is myelination important to a nerve cell?  Myelin is a fatty substance that acts an electrical insulator of neurons and speeds up conduction velocity through the axon. When the myelin is lost, the neuron "short circuits" and does not function properly. In the peripheral nervous system the myelin formed by the Schwann cells can form a regeneration tube that guides and aids in the regrowth of axons. This does not occur in the central nervous system where the myelination is provided by the oligodendrocytes.
In most places in the body arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels run together. Which one is NOT found in the central nervous system? Lymphatic vessesls. Also, remember that much of the blood leaving the brain travels through dural sinuses before emptying into the internal jugular vein.
Where in the brain would you find centers that regulate respiration, heart rate and blood vessel tone? The medulla oblongata. This is important in cases where a mass in the brain causes herniation and can cause pressure on these areas if the medulla is forced out through the foramen magnum.
What are the major microscopic characteristics seen in Alzheimer Disease?  Amyloid-containing plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.
What are the macroscopic changes seen here?  There is a loss of neurons due to cortical atrophy giving the brain a "walnut-like" appearance and enlargement of the ventricles due to loss of brain tissue.
What neurotransmitter is decreased in Alzheimer Disease? Acetylcholine, which is associated with memory.
What can be done to slow the progression of this disease?  Drugs that decrease the breakdown of ACh by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase have been helpful. Other medications control depression, agitation or sleep disorders.Otherwise, therapy centers on minimizing problems with failing cognitive skills: simplifying the environment, using redundant clues, and diet and exercise.
Basal ganglia are deep-lying regions known as "nuclei" within what part of the brain? Cerebrum. What neurotransmitter do these regions produce? Dopamine
Parkinson Disease usually begins after age 50.  Secondary Parkinsonism can be caused by:  postencephalitic syndrome, trauma, neoplasm, carbon monoxide poisoning, cerebrovascular disease and from such drugs as antipsychotics, antiemetics, antihypertensive drugs and street drugs.
Early onset Parkinson Disease is probably caused by: a genetic defect.
What are the symptoms of PD?  Involuntary muscle tremors, muscle rigidity, and bradykinesia. Late in the disease neuropsychiatric disorders and sleep disturbances. While muscle strength is more or less normal, the person has poor balance, stooped posture, lack of facial expression, and autonomic function is decreased.
How is PD treated? Through group support, education, exercise and nutrition; pharmacologically through the use of drugs that increase dopamine levels (some, like L-Dopa can also produce symptoms similar to PD!), augment the release of dopamine, prevent the breakdown of dopamine, or function as dopamine agonists or directly stimulate dopamine receptors. Anticholinergic drugs are sometimes also used. Surgical treatment includes thalamotomy or pallidectomy - basically producing specific lesions in the thalamus or globus pallidum. Implantation of electrodes for deep brain stimulation has also been successful.
Parkinson Disease affects males more often whereas Multiple Sclerosis affects more females.
MS is caused by: demyelination of neurons of the central nervous system. It is believed to be due to an autoimmune reaction.
What are some of the clinical signs and symptoms you might see with MS?  Monocular (one eye) symptoms in one quarter of the cases, optic neuritis, Lhermitte's sign, Uhthoff's phenomenon, paresthesias and other problems depending on the site of the lesions.
Which ethnic group is at the highest risk for developing MS? Persons of northern European descent.
What cells are affected in MS? The oligodendrocytes or oligodendroglia which provide the myelin sheaths for the neurons of the central nervous system.
What is the underlying etiology of MS?  It is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder. We see infiltration of the lesion by lymphocytes, and also see antibodies against oligodendroglial proteins.
Why is depression a side effect of MS? While this may be due directly to the formation of plaques, often it is due to the unpredictable nature of the disease. Not knowing when the next attack will occur makes planning your life very difficult.
 In most epileptics their first seizure will occur before the age of:  20.
Grand mal seizure is another name for:  generalized tonic-clonic seizure.
Why are these seizures potentially harmful?  The patients movements can be strong enough to damage bones and tendon, but more importantly, breathing is impaired while the brain is using 60 % more oxygen than normal. Prolonged attacks (status epilepticus) can lead to ischemic brain damage and death.
How does the nervous system differ from other systems in terms of glucose transporters? The nervous system depends on glucose for energy and cannot store it in the form of glycogen. The nervous system uses glucose transporters such as GLUT-1 which does not require insulin to be active.
If epinephrine inhibits the release of insulin and promotes glycogenolysis during exercise and stress, what effect will epinephrine have on blood glucose levels? Since glucose will not be taken into the cells and more glucose will be released due to the break down of glycogen, blood glucose levels will increase.
What effect do growth hormone and glucocorticoids (cortisol) have on blood glucose levels. Both these hormones increase blood glucose levels.
What is the difference between type 1A and type 1B diabetes? Type 1A diabetes is caused by an immune-mediated reaction by the patient against his own beta cells, thus decreasing insulin production. Type 1B is not an autoimmune disorder and is strongly inherited, so there is probably a genetic component to this form. Type 1B diabetes is more prevalent in persons of African or Asian descent. Also, insulin deficiency in these individuals may come and go.
Why do we no longer use the terms "adult onset", "juvenile onset" , "insulin dependent" and "insulin independent" diabetes? Whereas type 1 used to be more prevalent in children than adults, childhood obesity is now causing the onset of type 2 diabetes in children as young as 10 and it is predicted that type 2 diabetes will become the predominant form of diabetes in children of some ethnic groups within 10 years. Also, patients with any form of diabetes may require the use of insulin at some stage of their disease.
What are the two most important environmental factors for developing type 2 diabetes? Obesity and level of physical activity. Central obesity (increased abdominal fat) is more of a risk factor than peripheral obesity.
Which type of diabetes is more prone to develop ketoacidosis? Type 1. Because people with type 2 diabetes do not have an absolute insulin deficiency, they are less prone to develop ketoacidosis.
How do the levels of free fatty acids in the blood contribute to increased insulin resistance? FFAs stimulate the secretion of insulin, which if excessive and chronic can cause beta cell failure. FFAs also inhibit glucose uptake and glycogen storage by peripheral tissues, and reduce hepatic insulin sensitivity leading to increased hepatic glucose production and hyperglycemia.
How can diuretics raise blood glucose levels? Remember that insulin is important in getting potassium into cells. Diuretics that increase potassium loss impair the release of insulin (this may be due to a feed back loop).
People with type 1 diabetes who exercise are at risk of developing: hypoglycemia if normally well controlled. The intake of glucose by muscles increases during exercise and does not stop the effects of injected insulin and activate the mechanisms that would raise blood glucose. Symptoms of hypoglycemia may occur many hours after the person stops exercising. During periods when control is poor and glucose levels are high and insulin levels are low, exercise will increase blood glucose levels causing hyperglycemia.
Of diabetic ketoacidosis and hypoglycemia, which one has a faster onset and recovery rate? Hypoglycemia.