Spring 2008:
Final Exam is  Friday, May 2 at 5:00 pm

Link to problem areas specific to this class!!!

Remember to look over old study guides, but these are the highlights!
If you have had trouble in the past (or not) come and review your old exams. I will be in my office, probably from 8:30 a.m.  until 2:30 p.m.
Chapter 1:
What is anatomy? Physiology?
What is homeostasis?
Know the levels of organization within the body.
Review the body cavities and what is in them, and the membranes that line them.
Review the anatomical position, relative position terms, planes, and body regions.

Chapter 2:
Know what the following are: electrons, neutrons, protons, atoms, elements, molecules, ions, isotopes, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, electrolytes, acids, bases, salts, organic and inorganic substances, carbohydrates (what is their chemical formula?), lipids (remember, steroids are lipids!), proteins, and nucleic acids. What is a saturated fat? What is a phospholipid, and why is it important? What do we mean when we say a substance is polar? nonpolar? Hydrophilic? Hydrophobic? What are enzymes?

Chapter 3:
What is the smallest thing that is alive?
Know your organelles!!! Pay special attention to the cell membrane.
What is diffusion? What is a semipermeable membrane? What is osmosis? What do the terms isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic mean? What would each of these solutions do to a cell that is placed in them? What is filtration?
What is phagocytosis? Exocytosis? Endocytosis?
What are the steps of cell division (mitosis?) What important things happen during interphase?
What happens when a cell loses control of cell division? What could cause this?

Chapter 4:
What is metabolism? Anabolism? Catabolism?
What is hydrolysis? Dehydration synthesis?
What is the energy currency of the cell?
What are the steps in cellular respiration? Where does each occur? Where is oxygen used in cellular respiration? What happens if not enough oxygen is present? Write the chemical formula for cellular respiration. What substances can the body use to get energy?
What is a gene? Review transcription and translation; know how and where they occur.
What is a mutation, and where must it occur to be passed on to your children?

Chapter 5:
Be able to name the four types of tissues!
Describe the general characteristics of epithelial tissue. What are the two types?
Describe the general characteristics of connective tissue. Where can the different types of connective tissue be found?

Chapter 6:
What is an organ?
What is a membrane? Know the location, function and composition of cutaneous, serous, mucous and synovial membranes.
Review the 3 layers of the skin, what is in each layer, and what tissues are found there.
Review the glands of the skin.
Review the regulation of body temperature.

Chapter 7:
Know the classification of bones and the parts of a long bone. How can you tell a long bone has stopped growing? Know the four kinds of cells that begin with osteo-.
What is the matrix of bone? How is compact bone organized on a microscopic level? Spongy bone? How do bones help maintain homeostasis of blood calcium levels, and what hormones are involved? How are bones formed in the embryo?
Review the basic skeleton- what bones make up the axial and appendicular skeletons?

Chapter 8:
Review the classification of joints, and know the basic structure of a synovial joint.
Look over the major features of the shoulder, hip and knee joints.

Chapter 9:
Know the gross and microscopic anatomy of muscle. Be able to define a motor unit.
What neurotransmitter is released at a neuromuscular junction? Trace the steps in muscle contraction from the release of ACh into the synaptic cleft- What roles do Na⁺ and Ca⁺⁺ play?
Remember the phosphogen system and myoglobin? What are they good for?
What is "oxygen debt"?
What are twitch and tetanic contractions?
How do cardiac and smooth muscle differ from skeletal muscle? Which have gap junctions?

Chapter 10:
How do we divide the nervous system?
What neuroglia are found in the CNS? in the PNS? What do they do?
Describe a neuron in detail.
What two cells provide myelin? How do they differ? What does myelin do?
Describe the resting state of neuron. What are the differences between graded potentials and action potentials?  What is a threshold? What happens when an axon transmits an action potential? What happens at a synapse?

Chapter 11:
Describe the coverings of the brain and spinal cord. 
Trace the path of cerebrospinal fluid, starting with the blood.
Describe the spinal cord internally and externally.
What is a reflex, and how does it work? 
What is the cerebrum? What parts can you name? Where is the primary motor cortex? the primary somatosensory cortex? What parts make up the diencephalon? What do they do? What are the parts of  the brain stem? What does the cerebellum do? 
Describe a spinal nerve. What type of fibers travel through the dorsal root? The ventral root?
Describe the structure and function of the autonomic nervous system, and be sure to include neurotransmitters.

Look over all the material, and spend extra time with things which gave you difficulty the first time around.