A&P II Final Study Guide

The final is on Thursday, May 1, from 2:45 - 4:45. It will be 100 questions that may be multiple choice, matching or diagrams. There will also be a bonus section (short answer) that may be worth up to twenty points.

Remember, old study guides are still your best review. Learn what you were weak on the first time. Be sure you get a good night’s sleep before the final, otherwise your brain doesn’t function properly. Relax, and be sure to THINK while taking the exam. You may have memorized two facts, that when put together, make what would seem to be a hard question very easy.

Below I have given you some review ideas, and also stressed areas where the class was weak.

Chapter 12
Special senses: Know where the receptors are for each sense, what kind of receptors that sense uses (mechanoreceptors, etc) and what type of tissue the receptors are made from. How does each sense function ? For example, be able to trace the path of sound waves from the auricle to the hair cells of the organ of Corti, and from there to the brain. What is otitis media? What is glaucoma?
Major things that many people missed on the regular exam:
What part of the eye do cataracts affect?  Remember there are only 4 (maybe 6) different receptors for your sense of taste. What are they? What are the receptor cells for your sense of smell, and what is unusual about them? How do we focus to see up close (accommodation) ? (Hint: It has nothing to do with the pupil of the eye!)
Review how the rods of the eye work - remember that in the presence of light they release less inhibitory neurotransmitter!!

REVIEW THE SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS!

Chapter 14
What are the three main functions of blood? If I gave you the weight of a person in kilograms, could you tell me his approximate blood volume? What makes up blood, and in what proportions? What is the difference between serum and plasma? What does each type of blood cell do? What do the various plasma proteins do? Review the basics of blot clotting. What ion is needed? What vitamin? How do prevent clotting? How is blood typed? What happens to a worn out red blood cell? What is the Rh factor, and when is it a problem?
Major things that many people missed on the regular exam:
What mineral is needed in the process of blood clotting (hemostasis) ?
What do lymphocytes do?
Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
Be able to read a blood typing plate - like the one you did in lab.
What does vitamin K do?
What can we give that helps dissolve clots, and how does it work?
 

Chapter 15:
Be able to trace blood from the heart, through the body, and through the heart and lungs and back to the body. Where do we find oxygenated and deoxygenated blood? Watch the tricky spots. Review the cellular structure of the heart. What structures are found in the intercalated discs, and why are they important? Review heart sounds, and valve locations. Review autonomic innervation of the heart. Review the structure of the heart, chambers and layers. Review the ECG. Where is the body’s blood reservoir? Review the structure of blood vessels. What is the function of the hepatic portal system? The circle of Willis? What is the normal blood pressure in the right atrium (central venous pressure) and why is this important? How do baroreceptors help control blood pressure? Do they function differently if they are found in large veins instead of in large arteries?
Major things that many people missed on the regular exam:
Be able to locate and name the four valves of the heart!
What is another name for the epicardium?
Be able to trace the path of blood through the system and pulmonary circulations and the heart.
What causes the heart sounds?
Review the electrical conduction pathways of the heart.
What nerves innervate the heart, what system are they a part of , and what do they do?
Review the layers of the vessel walls.

Chapter 16:
How is a lymph capillary different from a blood capillary? How is lymph different from blood?  Describe a lymph node. What does it do, and what happens if it is removed? What does the spleen do? What is MALT? Review nonspecific and specific body defenses. How does interferon work? What is the difference between active and passive immunity? Artificially acquired immunity and naturally acquired immunity? What cells produce antibodies? How does an antibody work? What cells of the immune system attack other cells directly? What is the magic word and the magic number for immunity? Describe inflammation.

Chapter 17:
Trace the alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus (including the three sections of small intestine.). Where is abrasion most likely to occur? What organs are not a part of the canal, but dump their secretions into it through ducts. What is mastication? Deglutition? Describe the four layers found throughout the alimentary canal. What food substance (s) is/ are digested in the mouth? In the stomach? In the intestine? What does intestinal juice contain? What is missing? What do pancreatic enzymes digest? What does the liver produce, and how does this substance aid digestion? What does the mucosa of the small intestine look like? What does the muscosa of the large intestine look like? What goes on in the large intestine? (Why are we never alone?) Why don’t we digest our own stomachs? How does the liver assist with metabolism, homeostasis and the general well-being of the body, especially in association with the GI tract? How does the lymphatic system interact with the digestive system? Where is your esophagus in relation to the other structures that pass through your neck?

Chapter 19:
What is external respiration? What is internal respiration? Cellular respiration ? Trace the flow of air from your nose to your alveoli. What structures does it pass? What is the respiratory membrane? What cells make up the alveoli, and what are their functions? How does the autonomic nervous system affect the respiratory system? How does the breathing rate affect blood pH? Why is venous blood more acidic than arterial blood? What part of the brain controls breathing? What is partial pressure, how is it figured, and how does it determine the diffusion of gases? How does inspiration occur? Expiration? How is oxygen carried in the blood (be specific)? How is carbon dioxide transported (3 ways - which carries the most)? Glance over respiratory volumes.

Chapter 20:
Locate your kidneys. Find the cortex and medulla of the kidney, and ignore the rest of the macroscopic anatomy!! Concentrate on the nephron. Name the parts and what they do (are they in the cortex or the medulla?). What is the one place where filtration occurs? Describe the filtration membrane. How does the kidney maintain blood pressure in the glomerulus? In the body? How is the filtrate formed? What forces oppose filtration? How is urine formed from the filtrate? What does the loop of Henle do? How does ANTIdiuretic hormone (ADH) affect the kidney? Aldosterone? Atrial natriuretic peptide? The kidney makes renin when the blood pressure in the body is low. How does it work to restore blood pressure? Trace the flow of urine from the renal pelvis to the external urethra orifice. What kind of epithelium is found in the ureters and bladder? Why is a low pH helpful to the urinary tract? Why and how does the specific gravity of the urine change?

Chapter 21:
We are still having trouble with what ADH does. Diuresis is the secretion and passage of large amounts of water. An Antidiuretic hormone prevents the formation of large amounts of urine, which is mostly water, by increasing the permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, allowing water to reabsorbed into (not lost from) the body. ANP causes water to be lost from the body by causing sodium ions to be excreted into the urine. Aldosterone acts just the opposite to ANP; it causes more sodium(and water) to be reabsorbed into the body. What is the most effective way the body has for dealing with excess acid? . Be sure you know which end of the pH scale is acidic, and which is basic or alkaline.

Chapter 13:
Review the structure of the pituitary gland. Which side produces which hormones? How are theses hormones regulated? What vascular structures aid in this process? Which anterior pituitary hormone has two names? Learn where your hormones are produced, and what they do!!! Know the abbreviations for each hormone! Know how a steroid hormone differs from a protein hormone.

Chapter 22:
Review the role of hormones in reproduction, especially in the menstrual cycle!! What do LH and FSH do in the male? Be sure to read the reproduction notes on the web. How can a woman tell she is ovulating? How can a doctor tell a woman is pregnant? Review the effect of prolactin and oxytocin on milk production.

Remember what you just learned for exam 4! And good luck to all!!