Study Guide for Exam II   A&P II  Updated 10/6/08

Chapter 15 Repeats and Leftovers:
What are the heart sounds, and what causes them?
Trace the path of impulse flow through the conduction system of the heart.
Name the waves of an electrocardiogram. What causes each wave? Where is the wave for atrial relaxation (diastole)?
What part of the brain regulates heart rate? Trace the path of the sympathetic nerves from this region to the heart. Trace the path of the parasympathetic nerves from this region to the heart.
What effect would acetylcholine have on the heart? Epinephrine or norepinephrine?
How does the fetal circulation differ from a postnatal infant?  What do the ductus venosus, the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale bypass? What kind of blood does the umbilical vein carry?
What happens if baroreceptors in the arteries detect an increase in blood pressure?
Why does our heart rate increase when we are nervous?
What other factors affect heart rate?
What is an artery? Does it always carry oxygenated blood?
What is the lumen?
What is vasodilation? What is vasoconstriction?
What are the three layers or tunics of an artery? Which tunic is the thickest? What are the vasa vasorum?
How do the elastic arteries act as a pressure reservoir?
How do arterioles differ in structure from arteries? What are arteriovenous shunts?
What is the structure of a capillary wall? What structure is always found at the start of a true capillary?
What is the difference in structure between continuous capillaries, fenestrated capillaries, sinusoids, and the capillaries found in the brain?
What are venules?
What is the structure of a vein, and how does it differ from an artery?
What internal structures do veins contain that arteries do not?
Why are systemic veins called blood reservoirs? What can happen if you lock your knees, as when standing at attention?
In what vessels does blood travel the fastest? The slowest?
What is a normal systolic blood pressure? Diastolic blood pressure?
What is a pulse, and how can it be used to determine the health of an individual?
What is cardiac output? Could you calculate it given the stroke volume and heart rate?
What is Starling's Law?
What is the normal central venous pressure and where is it measured?
What is the hepatic portal system?

Chapter 16:
Describe the structure of a lymphatic capillary. How does it work?
What is lymph? Is it a circulating fluid?
What are the three functions of the lymphatic system?
Trace the flow of lymph from the lymphatic capillaries to the collecting ducts.
What are the two major lymphatic ducts, and what areas of the body do they drain? Where do they empty into the circulatory system?
What are the organs of the lymphatic system?
Describe the structure and function of a lymph node.
What happens when the flow of lymph is blocked?
What are lacteals and what do they do?
What is MALT? What are Peyer's patches ? What are tonsils?
What does the thymus do? Where is it? When is it largest? Then what happens to it?
Locate the spleen. What is white pulp? Red pulp?
What are the three functions of the spleen?
What is resistance? Susceptibility?
What is species resistance?
What mechanical barriers does the body posses? How do cilia help? Coughing or vomiting?
How does a lowered pH help the body? Where does this occur?
What is lysozyme? Where is it found?
How does your normal microbiota (bacteria on your skin) protect you?
How do transferrins prevent the growth of microbes?
How does interferon work? Does it help the cell that made it?
What is complement, and in what three ways does it act?
How does fever help the body fight off infection?
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation?
What are the three stages of inflammation?
Which one accounts for most of the signs of inflammation?
What is phagocytosis? What are the body's two major types of phagocytes?
What is chemotaxis? What other steps are involved in phagocytosis?
Why is adherence of the phagocyte to a bacterium sometimes difficult? What makes it easier?
What are natural killer cells? Do they have the same specificity as B cells and T cells?
What is the "magic word" when talking about immunity? What is the "magic number"?
What is an antigen? What characteristics make for a good antigen? What types of molecules fit that description?
What is a hapten? What is an epitope?
What is an Antigen Presenting cell, and what does it do? What type of cell does it activate?
What is MHC II? What is a cytokine?
What cytokine does the macrophage produce when the helper T cell binds to it?
What cytokine does the helper T cell produce, and what does it do?
What cells produce humoral or antibody mediated immunity?
What two types of cells are formed when B cells are activated?
What are antibodies? What does an antibody molecule look like, and how does it work?
What is IgM? IgG? Where would you find IgA's?
How does cell mediated immunity resemble AMI?
How does a Tc cell kill a virus infected cell? (Two possible ways)
What is a primary immune response? What is a secondary immune response?How do follicular dendritic cells help maintain immunity?
How does delayed type hypersensitivity occur? What cells are involved, and what type of reaction do they cause?
What type of immune reaction is immediate type hypersensitivity? What  immunoglobulins are involved, and what happens when they bind with an allergen?
What happens if these reactions occur throughout the body?
How can we counter the effects of immediate type hypersensitivity?
What is delayed-reaction allergy or delayed hypersensitivity? What type of immune response is involved? What is autoimmunity?
What is a tissue rejection reaction? What is graft-versus-host disease?
What are the four types of grafts (transplant tissues)?
What is an example of inherited immunity? Acquired immunity?
Be able to explain and give an example of natural active immunity, artificial active immunity, natural passive immunity and artificial passive immunity.
Which lasts longer, active immunity or passive immunity? Why?

Chapter 17 
What is digestion? What is absorption?
What are the four structural layers of the alimentary canal? The mucosa can be further divided into what three parts? In which of these parts would we find MALT?
Where would you find the submucosal plexus? The myenteric plexus? What type of nerve fibers are found here, and how does each type affect the alimentary canal?
What is another name for the serosa? What is its function?
What is mastication?
What is the oral cavity? What is the vestibule?
What kind of epithelium lines the oral cavity? Why is this helpful?
Where would you find the lingual tonsils? The palatine tonsils?
The pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)?
What is the function of the soft palate and the uvula?
How many sets of teeth do you get? How many does a normal adult have?
Where would you find dentin in a tooth? Enamel? What is in the pulp cavity?
What are the basic parts of a tooth?
What are incisors good for? Cuspids? Molars?
What are the three sets of salivary glands? Where are they located? Where do they enter the mouth? What are mumps?
What digestive enzyme is found in saliva and what does it break down?
What else is saliva good for?
What is deglutition? What are the three stages? Which are involuntary? What 3 areas close off to be sure food goes in the right direction?
What is the esophagus? Where is it located in relation to the trachea?
What opening in the diaphragm does it pass through?
The esophagus contains an a lower sphincter. When is it  open and when is it closed?
How does food travel through the esophagus?

END OF EXAM II