Chapter 12
In general, how do all sensory receptors work?
How do we form perceptions?
What do we mean by a threshold?
What is sensory adaptation?
What are exteroceptive senses? Interoceptive senses? Proprioception?
What sense organs help us feel touch and pressure? What are their receptor cells?
What causes us to feel pain? Do pain receptors adapt? Why is this a good thing?
What is referred pain? Phantom pain?
Describe the muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs. What do they sense, and what reflexes do they cause?
In general, how do nociceptors work? Thermoreceptors? Mechanoreceptors? Chemoreceptors?
Photoreceptors?
Which one of the types of receptors listed above functions in the sense of taste? In the sense of smell? Hearing and equilibrium? Vision?
The senses of smell and taste have nerve fibers that run through the limbic system. What effect does this have?
Of the four types of tissues, which type of cells form the receptors for the sense of smell?
Where are these receptors located?
What role does mucus play in the sense of smell?
How do we recognize thousands of different odors?
Are olfactory receptors replaced during a person’s lifetime? Why is this unusual?
What happens to our sense of smell as we get older?
What bony structure do the olfactory fibers pass through on their way to the olfactory bulb?
How quickly does the sense of smell adapt?
What can you tell me about the threshold for the sense of smell?
What are the four primary taste sensations? Which has the lowest threshold? Why is this protective?
If we can only detect four tastes, why do foods taste so different from each other?
Where are the receptors for taste located?
Of the four types of tissues, which type of cells form the receptors for the sense of taste?
Describe the structure of a taste bud.
What are the three main divisions of the ear?
What structures make up the outer ear? What glands do we find here? (learn the anatomical name as well as the common name!)
What is the primary function of the outer ear?
What structures make up the middle ear? Besides the eardrum and oval window, to what other structures (areas) does the middle connect? Why are these important?
What is the function of the middle ear? 
What do we call an infection of the middle ear?
What are the muscles found in the middle ear and what is their function?
Describe the bony and membranous labyrinths of the inner ear.
What are the three main divisions of these labyrinths? Which is involved in hearing? In static equilibrium? In dynamic equilibrium?
What type of tissue makes up the receptors found in the organ of Corti?
Trace the path of sound waves from the outer ear to the cochlear branch of cranial nerve VIII.
How do we hear high sounds differently from low sounds, or soft sounds differently from loud sounds?
How do the otoliths help maintain static equilbrium? Where are they located?
What part of the inner ear helps sense dynamic equilibrium? How does it function?
What is nystagmus and why does it occur after we spin in a chair?
What are the four layers of the eyelid?
What are eyelashes and eyebrow for?
Where is the lacrimal gland, and what does it do?
Where do tears go when they leave your eyes (if you are not crying so hard the tears run down your face)?
What cranial nerves innervate which extrinsic eye muscles?
What is strabismus? ( FYI - what is a phoria?)
The eyeball can be divided into three layers. What are they?
Do you find blood vessels in the fibrous tunic?
Why is the cornea clear?
What structures are part of the vascular tunic or uvea?
What are the two major functions of the ciliary body?
How do the muscles of the ciliary body and the lens work together to allow you to see close objects?
Why is the lens of the eye clear? What is a cataract?
What does the iris do? What happens when it receives stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system? From the parasympathetic nervous system?
Describe the structure of the retina.
Which receptors allow you to see in dim light and to sense fast moving objects?
Which receptors allow you to see colors and to have good visual acuity?
What part of your eye sees 20/20? Why ?
What do you find in the posterior cavity?
What is glaucoma?
How does your eye focus if you have emmetropia? Myopia? Hyperopia? Astigmatism?
What are the two parts of any photopigment?
What are your photoreceptors doing in the dark? (Mention cyclic GMP, sodium ions, and neurotransmitters )What happens when light hits them? How is this different from the way most nerve cells work?
Trace the path of impulses from the photoreceptors to the occipital cortex.
Why is it important that some fibers from each eye go to both cerebral hemispheres ?(This allows us to do what?)
What is the most common form of color blindness? What chromosome carries this information ?

Chapter 13 - endocrine system will be covered later in the semester

Chapter 14
What are the three main functions of blood?
What do you see after you put a tube of whole blood in a centrifuge? What are the percentages of these components?
Be able to calculate the approximate blood volume of a person if you are given his weight in kilograms. ( 1 kg = 2.2 lbs.)
What are the "formed elements" of blood, and what percent of blood do they usually make up?
What is an hematocrit, and what does it measure?
What would you find in the buffy coat?
When we remove the formed elements from blood, what’s left?
What do we have if we then remove the clotting factors?
What do we call the stem cell from which all blood cells originate?
Where is blood formed in a fetus? After birth?
Describe the shape of an erythrocyte. Why is this shape important to its function?
Describe an hemoglobin molecule. Where does the oxygen bind? Where can carbon dioxide bind? When oxygen binds with hemoglobin what compound is formed? What compound is formed when carbon dioxide binds with hemoglobin?
Why would a person appear cyanotic?
Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
What is the average red blood cell count for a male (in millions of cells/mm3). For a female or child? For a person living at high altitudes?
Why do red blood cells have a short life span?
What is the life cycle of a red blood cell? What happens to hemoglobin when a RBC dies?
What is erythropoietin? Where is it formed and what does it do?
What happens to bilirubin when the ducts from the liver to the small intestine becomes blocked?
What is anemia? Pernicious anemia? Why does a person who is anemic feel "tired all the time"?
What other vitamins and minerals are needed to prevent anemia?
What is sickle cell anemia?
What is polycythemia? When can it be good, and when can it be harmful?
What is the main function of leukocytes? Name the two main types of leukocytes. Name the leukocytes that fall into those two categories.
What is the function of each type of white blood cell?
Which white blood cells are the most plentiful? Which ones occur in very small numbers?
What is leukocytosis? Leukopenia?
What is a "differential white blood cell count"? Why is it helpful?
What information would you get if you asked the lab for a complete blood count?
What are major histocompatibility antigens and where are they found? How do we use them?
Describe a platelet. What cell does it come from, and what does it do?
What are the three main types of protein found in blood plasma, and what do they do?
What else would you find in plasma?
What is hemostasis?
What is vascular spasm?
How is a platelet plug formed?
What is thrombosis? A thrombus? An embolus? An embolism?
What are clotting factors? What mineral do they include? What vitamin is needed for the formation of clotting factors?
What are the three stages of blood clotting?
What are the differences between the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway?
How does a clot break down (what is the fibrolytic system)?
What is hemophilia?
What are the three major blood groups? What antibodies does each person produce?
What is the Rh factor?
What is erythroblastosis fetalis? When does it occur and how can we prevent it?

Chapter 15:
Remember that the heart is two pumps in one:
one for the pulmonary circulation, and one for the systemic circulation. Be able to trace the flow of blood through both of these pathways.
Where is the heart located?
Describe the three layers of the pericardium. What type of membranes are the visceral and parietal pericardium?
What is in the pericardial cavity?
What is cardiac tamponade?
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
Review cardiac muscle on a cellular level (refer back to muscle chapter). What do desmosomes and gap junctions do? Where in the muscle fiber are they located?
What are the four chambers of the heart? What grooves or sulci are found in the heart?
Identify the trabeculae carnae, the papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae. What do the last two structures do for the heart?
Be able to name and locate the four valves of the heart.
What are the four chambers of the heart?
Remember that the heart is two pumps in one: one for the pulmonary circulation, and one for the systemic circulation. Be able to trace the flow of blood through both of these pathways.
Where is the heart located?
Describe the three layers of the pericardium. What type of membranes are the visceral and parietal pericardium?
What is in the pericardial cavity?
What is cardiac tamponade?
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
What are the major arteries and veins that supply blood to the heart itself?
What are anastamoses, and how do they benefit the heart?
What are ischemia, hypoxia, angia pectoris, and a myocardial infarction?
What is the cardiac cycle? What are the events of the cardiac cycle?
How much blood flows into the ventricles passively, and how much enters due to atrial contraction?
What are the heart sounds, and what causes them?
A heart murmur signals trouble with what part of the heart?
Trace the path of impulse flow through the conduction system of the heart.
What is an ectopic pacemaker?
Name the waves of an electrocardiogram. What causes each wave? Where is the wave for atrial relaxation (diastole)?
What is bradycardia? Tachycardia?
What part of the brain regulates heart rate? Trace the path of the sympathetic nerves from this region to the heart. Trace the path of the parasympathetic nerves from this region to the heart.
What effect would acetylcholine have on the heart? Epinephrine or norepinephrine?
and since we have already covered it in class:
How does the fetal circulation differ from a postnatal infant?  What do the ductus venosus, the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale bypass? What kind of blood does the umbilical vein carry?
 

END OF EXAM I