Study Guide for Exam III in A&P II updated 7/24/08

Chapter 17 cont.
 

What are the divisions of the stomach? What additional muscle layer do we find here?
What are rugae? What are gastric pits?
What do goblet cells produce? What do the chief cells produce? What do the parietal cells make?
Why don't we digest our own stomach?
What is the primary type of biological molecule broken down in the stomach? What enzyme does this?
What do the enteroendocrine cells or G cells of the stomach make?
What do you get when you mix food and gastric juice?
What happens to gastric motility and secretion during the cephalic phase? The gastric phase? The intestinal phase?
How do Tagamet and Zantac block the production of stomach acid?
What substances are absorbed from the stomach?
How and why does vomiting occur?
Where is your pancreas? What other duct does the pancreatic duct join? Where does it empty?
What does pancreatic juice contain? Why is trypsin important? What neutralizes the stomach acid?
Locate your liver. Name the four lobes. How are the cells of the liver organized?
What are Kupffer’s cells and what do they do?
The liver receives two kinds of blood from two sources. What are they?
The hepatic portal system is different from the hepatic vein. Know the difference and why the hepatic portal system is there!!
How does the liver function in carbohydrate metabolism? Lipid metabolism? Protein metabolism? Storage of vitamins and minerals? Phagocytosis? Removal of drugs? What is the liver's only role in Digestion?
What structures move bile from the liver to the gallbladder? Where is the gallbladder located? What does bile contain? What do bile salts do in digestion? 
What does the gallbladder actually do? How does CCK affect it?
What sphincters are found at the beginning and end of the small intestine? (Note: this should help you remember the order of the three sections.)
What are the three sections of the small intestine?
How does the small intestine increase its surface area?
What are the crypts of Lieberkuhn? What types of cells are found here, and what do they make?
Where are the digestive enzymes of the small intestine?
What are the two movements of the small intestine, and what do they do?
What are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids broken down to (what are the monomers)? How are the monomers absorbed? Where do fats go when they are absorbed?
What is the peritoneum? Which organs are retroperitoneal? What are the mesentery and the mesocolon? What does the greater omentum look like, and what does it do?

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Chapter 19
Define respiration. What is external respiration? What is internal respiration? Cellular respiration ? What is another term for ventilation?
Why (chemically speaking) do we need oxygen?
What are the parts of the upper respiratory tract? What are the parts of the lower respiratory tract?
What are the structures of the nasal cavity, and how do they help to warm, moisten and filter the air we breathe? What is another function of the nasal cavity?
What are the three divisions of the pharynx? What types of epithelium do we find in each of these regions, and how does that relate to the function of each section?
What are the functions of the larynx? What are the nine cartilages which make up the larynx.
What is the function of the "false vocal cords"?
How does the larynx of a male differ from that of a female?
How do we speak?
Describe the trachea. Where is it in relationship to the esophagus, and how do they fit together?
What is the carina?
How do the right and left primary bronchi differ? If you inhaled a foreign object, where would it probably end up?
Describe the branching of the bronchi .
Describe the branching of the bronchi and bronchioles. How do you tell the difference between a bronchus and bronchiole?
What effect does the autonomic nervous system have on bronchioles?
What are the membranes surrounding the lungs?
How do the right and left lung differ and why?
What three types of cells would you find in an alveoli, and what do they do?
What is respiratory distress syndrome, and what can be done to help?
Describe the alveolar-capillary or respiratory membrane. How is it suited to diffusion?
Describe the muscles involved in inspiration. Which one is the most important?
How does expiration occur? What additional muscles are involved in forced inhalation and in forced exhalation?
What is eupnea? Apnea? Dyspnea?
Define tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, inspiratory capacity, expiratory capacity, vital capacity and total lung capacity. What is the anatomic dead space?
Be able to calculate minute volume of respiration.
What is the medullary rhythmicity center, and what does it control? How is it influenced by the pneumotaxic area of the pons?
What influences the central chemoreceptors, and how do they respond? The peripheral chemoreceptors?
What is hyperventilation and how does it affect blood pH? Why?
How do temperature and pain affect the breathing rate?
What is the normal atmospheric pressure at sea level? What do we mean by a partial pressure?
How does the partial pressure of a gas influence its diffusion?
How is oxygen transported in the blood (be specific).
Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?
What three ways does the blood transport carbon dioxide? How is MOST of the carbon dioxide transported?        

Chapter 20
Where are your kidneys? In relation to the peritoneum?
Identify the hilum, cortex, and medulla.
What is the functional unit of  the kidney?
What are the parts of a nephron?
What are the two types of nephrons?
Why is the structure of the efferent and afferent arterioles so critical to the functioning of the kidney?
How much kidney do you need to survive?
What are the functions of the kidneys besides waste management?
What are the three layers that surround the kidneys?
Describe the vascular system surrounding the nephron.
What three processes are used to make urine ?
What three structures make up the filtration membrane? What does each layer filter?
What type of epithelium is found in the proximal convoluted tubules? What functions occur here?
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
What two types of cells make up the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, and what are the functions of these cells?
What force drives fluid out of the glomerular capillaries?
What two forces oppose glomerular filtration?
How do renal autoregulation, hormonal regulation and neural regulation each affect the kidneys?
What is tubular reabsorption? What is reabsorbed in the PCT?
What do we mean by "where sodium goes, water follows"?
What do we mean by a tranport maximum, and what happens when it is exceeded?
How does ADH affect the DCT and collecting ducts? What does aldosterone do here?
What is tubular secretion, and what are the two main functions of tubular secretion?
How is a dilute urine produced? A concentrated urine?
What factors would increase the specific gravity of urine? Decrease it ?
What is diabetes insipidus?
Describe the ureters. How do they conduct urine to the bladder?
What do we find at the junction of the ureters and the bladder?
Describe the urinary bladder (location, layers, type of epithelium, trigone, internal and external urethral sphincters).
How does micturition occur?
How does the urethra differ in the male and the female? How are they the same?

Chapter 21
By what process does water move within the body? What determines the concentration of water?
What do we mean by "Where sodium goes, water follows"?
Who has a greater amount of water, a baby or an adult? A man or a woman? Why?
What are the two main locations for water in the body? One of these can be broken down into two more compartments- what are they? Which of the three fluid compartments tends to vary the most?
What are the two factors that control water movement between the three compartments? How do these two forces work?
Where does the water we take in come from?
How do we prevent dehydration?
How do we lose water? What is insensible loss? What is the main way we control water loss? What three hormones are involved, and how do they work?
What is water toxicity? How can overhydration occur?
What is edema, and how does it occur?
What are electrolytes? What do they do in the body - notes should have 4 functions.
For sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate and phosphate ions: know the chemical symbol, are they found in greater concentrations inside or outside a cell, what do they do for the body and how are their concentrations regulated.
Review the pH scale. Know what pH is. What is an acid? What is a base?
Be able to list the three major ways the body handles acids and bases? Which is the bigger problem, acids or bases? Why?
What is a buffer system? How does it work? What are the three main buffer systems of the body? How much more bicarbonate ion than carbonic acid does the blood contain? How does a protein act as a buffer?
What is a volatile acid? A fixed acid? What happens to blood pH when we hyperventilate? When we hypoventilate?
Why are kidneys the most efficient and important of the acid-base regulatory systems?
What do we mean by acidosis or alkalosis? Does blood ever get very acidic?
What can cause respiratory acidosis? Respiratory alkalosis? How would the body compensate?
What can cause metabolic acidosis? Respiratory alkalosis? How would the body compensate?

Chapter 13
What is the difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland?
What are the differences in circulating hormones, paracrine secretions and autocrine secretions?
How are circulating hormones inactivated and/or removed from the body?
Compare and contrast the nervous system and the endocrine system.
Why do hormones, which are carried everywhere in the body by the blood, affect only certain organs?

END EXAM III