Study Guide for Exam 4- Anatomy and Physiology I
Spring 2008
Reminder: Exam 4 will be given during class  on Monday, April 28!

See also: ANS nerve comparison
Notes for chapter 11 in case we go too fast in class the last week!

Chapter 9 leftovers :

How does cardiac muscle differ from skeletal muscle? What structures are present that are not found in skeletal muscle? How does Ca++ get to the sarcoplasm of a cardiac muscle cell? Why is a long refractory period beneficial here?
Know the differences between single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle.
How does smooth muscle differ from skeletal muscle? What filaments does it contain, and where does the calcium come from for smooth muscle contraction?
Know an origin from an insertion.
Know  the definitions of  prime movers (agonists), synergists and antagonists.

Chapter 10:
What are the three basic functions of the nervous system?
What parts of the nervous system make up the central nervous system? The peripheral nervous system?
What does afferent and efferent mean in the nervous system? What types of information would be carried by these nerves (afferent and efferent nerves)?
What are the somatic and autonomic nervous systems, and what do they control? What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? Which is "feed and breed" and which is "fight or flight" ? (bear or book?)
What are the three basic parts of a neuron? In what direction does current flow through them? What is a trigger zone? What is an axon collateral? What do you find in synaptic end bulbs? Can you identify the parts of a neuron in a diagram?
What are Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance) and what do they do? What else would you expect to find in a neuron cell body?
What is a nerve fiber? What exactly is a nerve? What is a ganglion? What is a tract?
What are the two types of axonal transport, and what do they do? Which can be dangerous?
**Neuroglia: know the six glial cells, whether they are in the CNS or PNS, and what each cell does.
What does myelination mean? What is a neurolemma? What is a node of Ranvier ?(neurofibril node)?
What two things does myelination do for a cell in the PNS? ( think impulse conduction and regeneration)
Why don't axons regenerate in the central nervous system?
What is multiple sclerosis?
What is found in gray matter? Where is gray matter found?
Why is white matter white?
If I gave you a picture, could you identify a multipolar, bipolar and unipolar nerve cell?
Which of the above neurons would be sensory neurons? Which would be interneurons?
What is a resting membrane potential? What ions are more concentrated inside the cell? Outside the cell? How do these ions get separated?
What is a leakage channel? A gated channel? What are the kinds of gated channels?
What makes current in a cell?
Know the difference between graded potentials and action potentials. (Remember the chart on the overhead?)
What do we mean when we say that a neuron is polarized?
What is a threshold?
What is depolarization? Hyperpolarization? How would they affect the ability of a neuron to achieve a threshold?
Know how an action potential is generated : what happens with the Na+ and K+ voltage-gated channels, how a cell depolarizes and repolarizes.
How is an absolute refractory period different from a relative refractory period?
How does saltatory conduction differ from continuous conduction?
What two factors affect the speed of impulse propagation ?
When the action potential reaches the synaptic end bulb, in addition to the Na+ and K+ channels, what other ion comes into the cell through voltage-gated channels and causes the release of the neurotransmitter?
What is an excitatory postsynaptic potential? What is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential?
What is summation? What are two types of summation?
Where is acetylcholine used as a neurotransmitter?
Can a certain neurotransmitter be both excitatory and inhibitory?
What other substances act as neurotransmitters? (Know the 4 categories, and the specific neurotransmitters we talked about in class.) Which ones are the bodies natural pain killers?
Which one is made only when it is needed, and why is it made this way?
Don't worry about all the neurotransmitters listed in table - know Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
How are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?
What is a neuronal pool? A simple circuit? a diverging circuit? a converging circuit?

Chapter 11 :
What are the three meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord ? Which is closest to the spinal cord? Which is outermost?
Where would you find cerebrospinal fluid? Where is cerebrospinal fluid formed? How? Where are the four ventricles in the brain? Where does the CSF flow, and where does it return to the vascular system?
What nerves come from and go to the cervical enlargement? The lumbar enlargement?
What is the filum terminale? The denticulate ligaments?  The cauda equina? Where are spinal taps done?
Which type of nerves (motor or sensory) enter or leave the spinal cord by the posterior or dorsal root? By the anterior or ventral root?
What cell bodies are found in the anterior gray horn? In the lateral gray horn?
Would a single tract in the spinal cord carry both motor and sensory fibers?
Where is the central canal? What flows through it?
Don't spend time memorizing all the tracts.
What are association neurons and what do they do? Where are they found?
What is a nerve pathway?
What is a reflex? What is the difference between a somatic and an autonomic reflex?
What are the components of a reflex arc?
Know how the stretch, flexor and crossed extensor reflexes work. Know which are monosynaptic and which are polysynaptic. What is reciprocal innervation?
Which of the reflexes are ipsilateral and which are contralateral?
Which are intersegmental?
Read over brain development, but don't spend a lot of time here. What neural tube defects can be prevented if a pregnant woman gets enough of what vitamin?
The cerebrum:
What is a gyrus? A sulcus?
Where is the longitudinal fissure? The lateral fissure? The central sulcus? The transverse fissure?
What does the corpus callosum do?
What and where are the primary motor cortex and primary somatosensory cortex?
What is an association area, and what does it do?
In a right handed person, what skills tend to be localized on which side of the brain?
What is short term memory? Long term memory? What kinds of changes are associated with long term memory?
What is memory consolidation?
What and where are the basal ganglia? What neurotransmitter do they use? What happens when they degenerate?
Where is cerebrospinal fluid formed? How is it formed? Where does it go?
What happens if too much is formed, or not enough drains?
The diencephalon:
What makes up the diencephalon? What does the pineal gland do?
What does the infundibulum make?
The mamillary bodies are associated with what sense?
What does the thalamus do?
What does the hypothalamus control?
What part of the brain is called the "emotional brain"? Why?
The brain stem:
    The midbrain:
        Where are the superior and inferior colliculi (corpora quadrigemina)?
        What do they do?
    The pons:
        What does the pons do? What bodily function does it help control?
    The Medulla oblongata:
        What are the pyramids, and what happens here?
        What regulatory centers do we find here?
What is the reticular formation? What is the reticular activating system, and what does it do?
The cerebellum:
What is the arbor vitae? The vermis? 
What is the main function of the cerebellum?
What are "intention tremors"?
What are the connective tissue layers of a peripheral nerve?
How many spinal nerves are there? How many are cranial? Thoracic? Lumbar? Sacral? Coccygeal?
What type of fibers travel through the ventral or anterior root? Through the dorsal root?
What is a dermatome?
What is the autonomic nervous system? What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? How are they the same? How are they different? (Be sure to check charts on this web site.)
What are cholinergic fibers? Where are they found? What types of receptors react to acetylcholine?
What are adrenergic fibers? Where are they found? What types of receptors react to norepinephrine and epinephrine? How would this be helpful to someone with asthma?
What part of the endocrine system is sometimes considered to be part of the sympathetic nervous system?
Which neurotransmitter would have a longer lasting effect, acetylcholine or norepinephrine? Why?
We reviewed the autonomic nervous system - very important stuff. Be sure you get it straight!!
Cranial nerves: Know the names of all 12 cranial nerves and the functions of all except nerves IX, XI and XII.
Know what the circle of Willis is, and what it does.
 Study hard and good luck!!!